Paper Presented at AERA,
The Effect of Motivational Scaffolding on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning
Bruce W. Tuckman, Ph.D.
The
Abstract
The purpose of the research was to
determine experimentally whether the addition of features to enhance learner
motivation and collaboration, termed motivational
scaffolding, to “traditional” distance learning design improved learner
satisfaction, engagement, and performance. Two versions of a web-based 5-credit
study skills course, both covering the same content and sharing all features
save for the scaffolding, were compared: traditional-distance, and
motivationally-scaffolded distance, during each of two terms. Motivational
scaffolding consisted of using chat to run study
skills support groups and instructor office
hours. Results showed that procrastinating students performed better in the
motivationally-scaffolded version than the traditional, while
non-procrastinating students performed equally in both.
Framework and Objective
Distance education has undergone radical changes in the past decade due to technological advancements in networked computing, in turn causing college curricula to change to incorporate the potentialities made available by the Internet and the World Wide Web. Benefits of current web-based distance learning include increased flexibility to meet specific learner needs, equity of educational opportunities no matter physical locale of learner, and expansion of the resource base for the learner (Kerka, 1996). Disadvantages of web-based distance learning include the requirement of basic technology skills on the part of the learner, the possibility of social isolation, and a reliance on learner initiative in an environment with less supervision than a traditional course setting (Kerka, 1996).
The lack of supervision and reliance on learner initiative often leads to excessive procrastination and reduced performance, especially among students inclined toward procrastinating (Tuckman, 2003). Even when distance courses are designed to have a considerable number of performance requirements and frequent deadlines, many students treat the opportunity for self-pacing as an invitation to procrastinate. The absence of an on-site instructor makes this behavior difficult to control.
Scholars have examined deficiencies in web-delivered distance learning courses, and developed several strategies to increase learner motivation and decrease social isolation within them. Keegan (1986) argued that the key component of distance education should be dialogue that may be initiated by the learner, as opposed to the learner merely receiving messages passively. Ben-Jacob and Levin (1998) document the general trend away from passive learner models to more active learner models facilitated by newer technologies of distance education, and predict that collaborative learning will become an integral part of higher learning. Hiltz (1998) articulates the problems of web-based distance learning courses as primarily resulting from loss of the sense of community, and cites collaboration as a necessity if on-line distance learning courses are to be as effective as traditional, site-based courses. Collaboration, as a vehicle to foster a sense of community and to combat social isolation, and, further, as a technique to foster learner initiative and motivation, should be built into web-based distance learning.
Keller (1999) makes the case that effective distance learning must have student motivational tactics integrated into the course design. Winfield, Mealy, and Scheibel (1998), in recognizing motivation as a primary problem of distance learning, developed a pedagogical model which incorporates emphasizing presence of the instructor, providing a clear set of learning activities, relating learning to students’ personal experiences, tying content to real-world applications, and fostering student collaboration.
In acknowledging the dilemma of student initiative and motivation in scenarios of distance learning, the present study was designed to (a) build into a course components designed to maximize learner engagement and initiative, and (b) evaluate the effectiveness of these components in terms of course and term performance of procrastinators and non-procrastinators.
Makrakis (1998) has articulated several conditions for effective use of collaborative distance learning, which include student interdependence, personal responsibility, and engaging instructors who are able to coach students. Zack (1995) demonstrated that use of frequent computer-moderated communication between instructor and students enabled the instructor to be more accessible and responsive to students, and increased the perceived quality of the class and the effectiveness of the instructor. Firdyiwek (1999) recommends, at minimum, web-based courses consist of integrated synchronous and asynchronous communication tools, web-based presentation platforms for students, and flexibility in the distribution of responsibilities of the instructor and the learners. The literature suggests that (1) special attention to the nature of the learner/learner and learner/instructor communication is necessary to fully exploit the benefits of distance learning, and (2) strategies should be employed that focus on fostering collaboration, self-motivation, and learner initiative. The motivational- scaffolding design tested in this study reflects strategies to increase the quality and frequency of instructor/learner and learner/leaner computer-moderated communication, with attention to feedback mechanisms, motivational meetings, and personal accountability.
Motivationally-scaffolded distance learning incorporates many aspects missing in typical, “traditional” distance learning courses. For example, the instructor role of “coach” is emphasized. Study skills support groups, utilizing electronic synchronous and asynchronous communication tools, are employed, providing for learner-to-learner guided conferencing, moderated by the instructor/coach. Material in the scaffolded- distance learning course is time-released. Frequent instructor feedback comes in the form of planned synchronous and asynchronous messages, increasing the responsiveness and accessibility of the instructor.
Given the proliferation of distance education
courses and programs at colleges and universities, it is highly important that
the educational and telecommunications characteristics of these efforts be
successful in terms of both economic and human capital. This requires that completion
rates and achievement gains be comparable to those provided by campus-based
courses. To ensure this, attempts to develop and improve the educational and
telecommunications aspects of distance education as tested here must be carried
out.
Methods
Participants. The total number of participants was 93, all of whom were students at a large midwestern university who completed a 5-credit, letter-graded elective distance course in learning and motivation strategies during either the Winter ’03 or Spring ’03 Quarters. Assignment to each of the distance versions, traditional and motivationally scaffolded was done on a random basis, without the awareness of the students. The demographics of the sample was as follows: 56% male, 44% female; 31% minority, 69% non-minority; 44% freshmen, 27% sophomores, 16% juniors, 13% seniors; 32% GPA under 2.2, 36% GPA over 2.2 but under 2.9; 32% GPA 2.9 and over.
Instructional Treatments. There were two instructional treatments: (1) traditional distance, and (2) motivationally-scaffolded distance. Each version used the same course and was identical in all of the following aspects: (a) syllabus; (b) content; (c) calendar; (d) textbook; (e) course development tool/database; (f) inclusion of 216 web-based learning performance activities, including assignments, end of unit tests, online, threaded discussions on course content, portfolios, and papers, all with deadlines.
The traditional distance learning treatment was done at a distance, with all instructor-learner interaction occurring asynchronously via the Internet, triggered either by learner questions or instructor reminders. The scaffolded- distance learning treatment added to the traditional distance learning treatment two major features that were intended to provide a vehicle for collaboration, motivation, and coaching between learners, and between them and the instructor, in order overcome the perceived “deficiencies” of the traditional approach. These two features are described below.
Study Skills Support Groups (Tuckman & Schouwenburg, 2003) were modeled after other well-known self-regulation support groups (e.g., rehabilitation groups). The members “met” on a regularly scheduled basis, with each member serving as another’s “booster” or sponsor, and in turn having a different member serve as his or hers. The booster’s task was to help the partner manage his/her time by reviewing weekly To-Do Checklists prepared by the partner relative to the partner’s subsequent task accomplishment. Boosters worked with their partner one-on-one, and then the group “met” as a whole (including the instructor) with the purpose of creating social control and rewarding studying behavior. Meetings between boosters and their partners and between all group members (and instructor) were required, and were done online, synchronously, in a chat room – using Parachat software.
Regularly scheduled instructor Office Hours, a characteristic part of campus-based instruction, were also done in motivationally-scaffolded distance learning, also synchronously, in a chat room.
Course Measures. The following measures were employed (all obtained online) in both instructional treatments: (a) Course Performance Percentage Score – a measure of course engagement in the form of percentage of the 1,000 available points for performance on the over 200 learning performance activities that each individual student actually earned; (b) Grade Point Average for the term the course was taken (reflecting the fact that the purpose of the course was to improve academic performance); (c) Student Evaluation of Course - student evaluations of instruction, course content, and instructor in terms of perceived quality of presentation, likelihood and ease of application, and overall satisfaction; also included were open-ended questions about what was liked most and least, and suggestions for change.
Procrastination Tendency. This was measured using the Tuckman Procrastination Scale, a 16-item instrument with responses on a 4-point Likert scale (no neutral point). The validity and reliability of the instrument have been established (Tuckman, 1991). The scale was administered online as part of the course, at the beginning of the second week. A median split of the pooled sample was used to classify students as either high or low procrastinators.
Procedure. Comparisons between the two distance learning versions of the learning and motivation strategies course were run during two consecutive academic quarters. At random, half of the enrollees in the two distance formats were assigned to each instructional treatment, without drawing their attention to the differences in the two approaches. Each treatment was taught by a different instructor, with the two instructors switching instructional treatments from one quarter to the next. Hence, both student selection bias and instructor bias were controlled, making the design a true experiment. At the beginning of the course, all students completed a permission form for data access that had been approved by the Human Subjects Institutional Review Board.
Analysis. Data from the two quarters on all of the measures were pooled into a single data set for analysis. Sample sizes for each analysis reflect number of students for whom both procrastination and final performance scores were available, that is, students who completed the course. Statistical tests were run on the course performance and grade point average measures, with instructional treatment as the independent variable and procrastination level as the moderator variable.
Results and Conclusions
Course Performance. An analysis of covariance of performance percentage
score with prior cumulative GPA as the covariate yielded no significant main
effects, but a significant interaction between instructional treatment and
procrastination tendency (F=3.94, df=1, 89, p=.05). Adjusted mean course percentage scores for
high procrastinators were as follows: 90% in the motivationally-scaffolded
condition, 83% in the traditional distance condition. For low procrastinators,
the means were 86% and 87% respectively.
Grade Point Average. An analysis of variance of grade point
average gains for the quarter the course was taken relative to prior cumulative
grade point average yielded no significant main effects, but a significant
interaction between instructional treatment and procrastination tendency
(F=3.99, df=1,89, p<.05). Mean GPA gain scores for high procrastinators were
as follows: 0.43 in the motivationally-scaffolded condition and 0.10 in the
traditional distance condition. For low procrastinators, the means were 0.16
and 0.19 respectively.
Student Evaluation of Course. Students numerical ratings of all aspects
of the course were essentially the same, regardless of instructional treatment.
However, on the open-ended questions, comments by one-third of the students in
the motivationally- scaffolded classes indicated a lack of usefulness of the
on-line chats. Since, the evaluations were done anonymously, it is not possible
to separate high and low procrastinators, but one would like to believe that
these respondents were primarily low procrastinators.
It was
concluded that motivational scaffolding in the form of synchronous, on-line
(chat) support group meetings and instructor office hours provided a
collaborative mechanism enabling high procrastinating students to stay on task
and meet deadlines. This resulted in better course performance and school term
performance than for their counterparts not experiencing any scaffolding beyond
the “normal” communication in a distance learning course. However, the
scaffolding provided no comparable benefit for low procrastinators, who,
presumably, managed their time effectively without such assistance. Of further
note, the time spent in the scaffolding made it reasonably unpopular, but this
may have been because of its perceived lack of value by low procrastinators.
It is expected that efforts in this endeavor will add to the literature in the field, thereby informing others of ways that distance learning can be made more collaborative, can increase learner initiative, and can be made more effective. Others teaching at a distance are encouraged to include procedures to help students stay on task.
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